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Linguistically the tribes of India are broadly classified into four categories, namely
(i) Indo-Aryan Speakers
(ii) Dravidian Speakers
(iii) Tibeto-Burmese speakers, and
(iv) Austric speakers.
 There are four hundred tribal languages, which means that most of the tribes have their own languages. However, in a majority of cases, these languages are unwritten ones. In Orissa the speakers of the Tibeto-Burmese language family are absent, and therefore Orissan tribes belong to other three language families. The Indo-Aryan language family in Orissa, includes, Dhelki-Oriya, Matia, Halaba, Jharia, Saunti, Laria and Oriya (spoken by Bathudi and the acculturated sections of Bhuiyan, Juang, Kandha, Savara, Raj Gond etc.).
The Austric language family includes eighteen tribal languages namely, Birjia, Parenga, Kisan, Bhumij, Koda, Mahili Bhumij, Mirdha-Kharia, Ollar Gadaba, Juang, bondo, Didayee, Karmali, Kharia, Munda, Ho, Mundari and Savarna. And within the Dravidian language family there are nine languages in Orissa, namely: Pengo, Gondi, Kisan, Konda, Koya, Parji, Kui, Juvi and Kurukh or Oraon.
There was a general misconception that tribal communities did not possess languages but dialects. But with the extensive study of tribal languages Linguists have come to the conclusion that tribal, do possess languages. Tribal languages contain the same features which other languages possess, such as (i) duality of structure (phonemic and morphemic) (ii) productivity capability (creativity and novelty) (iii) arbitrariness (no correlation between linguistic morphs and their meanings) (iv) interchangeability (vocal and auditory functions are simultaneous) (v) specialization (codes and code-switching capability. (vi) displacement (abstractness of speech) (vii) prevarication (ability to misrepresent reality) and (viii) cultural transmission (learning and inculcation). Besides, tribal languages have all the four subsystems, such as (a) phonomorphemic (b) syntactic (c) semantic and (d) symbolic which other languages have.
 The major difference between tribal and non-tribal languages is that the former are unwritten ones. Nd therefore have no literay traditions, but only oral traditions when one examines the entire range of folklore of a tribe, he finds that the oral tradition of that tribe is no less rich. Some of the major tribes have been trying to develop literary traditions of their own , for example, Santhals of Orissa have developed a script called Olchiki, for their language. Their cultural organization has been priting and publishing primary level text books, Santhals songs, myths,riddles, proverbs, anecdotes and dramas in this script. And in addition, the cultural organization has been printing newsletters and calendars of Santhal annual cycle festivals.
The tribes of Orissa though belong to three linguistic divisions, yet they have lots of socio-cultural similarities amongthem. These communities signify homogeneity of their cultures and together they characterize the notion or concept of triblism.
Tribal societies share certain common characteristics and by these they are distinguished from complex or advance societies. in India tribal societies had apparently been outside the main historical current . Hence tribal societies manifested such cultural features which signified a simple socio – cultural parameter.
Habitat: A major portion of the tribal habitat is hilly forested . Tribal village are generally found in areas away from the alluvial plains close to rivers . Most villages are uniethnic in composition , and smaller in size . Village are often not planned at all.
 Economy : Tribal economy is characterized as subsistence oriented .The subsistence economy is based mainly on collecting , hunting and fishing (e.g., the Birhor, Hill Kharia ) or a combination of hunting ad collecting with shifting cultivation (e.g., the Juang, Hill Bhuiyan Lanjia Saora, Kandha etc) Even the so-called plough-using agricultural tribes do often , whereever scope is available, supplement their economy with hunting and collecting. Subsistence economy is characterized by simple technology, simple division of labor, small scale units of production and no investment of capital. The social unit of production and no investment of capotal. The social unit of production, distribution and consumption is limited to the family and lineage. Subsistence economy is imposed y cirecumstances which are beyond the Control of human beings, poverty of the physical environment , ignorance of efficient technique of exploiting natural resources and lack of capital for investment. It also implies existence of barter and lack of trade.
Considering the general features of their (i) eco-system (ii) traditional economy (iii) supernatural beliefs and practices, and (iv) recent “impacts of modernization” the tribes of Orissa can be classified into six types, such as (a) Hunting, collecting and gathering type (b) Cattle-herder ype (c) Simple artisan type (d) Hill and shifiting cultivation type (e)Settled agriculture type and (f) Industrial urban worker type.
Each type has a distinct style of which could be best understood in the paradigm of nature, man and spirit complex that is, on the basis of relationship with nature, fellow men and the supernatural.
 1. Tribes of the first type, namely, Kharia, Mankidia, Mankirdia and Birhor, live in the tiny temporary depend on forest resources for their livelihood by practicing hunting, gathering and collecting. They live in tiny temporary hunts made out of the materials found in the forest. Under constraints of their economic pursuit they live in isolated small bands or groups. With their primitive technology, limited skill and unflinching traditional and ritual practices. Their entire style of life revolves round forest. Their world view is fully in consonance with the forest resources is vary significant. Socio-politically they have remained inarticulate and therefore have remained in a relatively more primitive stage, and neglected too.
2. The Koya, which belongs to the Dravidian linguistic group, is the lone pastoral and cattle-breeder tribal community in Orissa. This tribe which inhabits the Malkangiri, district has been facing crisis for lack of pasture. Rehabilitation of Bangladesh refugees in the Koystraditional habitat has created certain socio-economic problems for the latter.
 3. In Orissa, Mahali and Kol-Lohara practisc crafts.like basketry and black-smithy respectively .The Loharas with their traditional skill and primitive tools manufacture iron and wooden tools for other neighboring tribes and thereby eke out their existence . Similarly the Mahalis earn their living by making baskets for other communities. Both the tribes are now confronted with the problem of scarcity of raw materials. And further they are not able to complete with others, especially in the tribal market where goods of others communities come for sale. Because of their primitive technology.
4. The tribes that practice hill and shifting cultivation are many. In northern Orissa, the juang and bhuiyan and in southern Orissa the kandha, saora, koya, parenga, Didayi, Dharua and Bondo practice shifting cultivation. They supplement their economy by food-gathering and hunting as production.
In shifting cultivating the practitioners follow a pattern of cycle of activities which are as follows : (i) Selection of a patch of hill slope or forest land and distribution or allotment of the same to intended practitioner ,(ii) Worshipping of concerned deities and making of sacrificing (iii) Cutting of trees , bushes ferns etc. existing on the land before summer month (iv) piling up of logs , bushes and ferns on the land (v) Burning of the withered logs, ferns and shrubs etc..to ashes on a suitableday (vi) cleaning of the patch of land before the onset of monsoon and spreading of the ashes evenly on the land after a shower or two(vii) Hoeing and showing of seeds with regular commencement of monsoon rains(viii) Crude bunding and weeding activities follow after sprouting of seeds(ix) Watching and protecting the crops (x) Harvesting and collectingcrops (xi) Threshing and storing and storing of crons,grains etc. and (xii) Merry –making .in these operations all the member of the family are involved in some way or the other. Work is distributed among the family member according to the ability of individual Member.
 However, the head of the family assumes all the responsibilities in the practice and operation of shifting cultivation.The adult males, between 18 and 50 years of age undertake the strenuous work of cutting free ,ploughing and hoeing ,and watching of the crops at night where as cutting the bushes and shrubs, cleaning of seeds for sowing and weeding are done by women.
Shifting cultivation is not only an economic pursuit of some tribal communities ,but it account for their total way of life, Their social structure, economy,political organization and religion are all accountable to the practice of shifting cultivation.
However , shifting cultivation has certain demerits. Whenever shifting cultivation is carried out on a steep slope it invariably invites the agents age is of erosion and degradation. By deforestation soil loses its water retention capcity. The sub-soil gets washed away and the rocks and boulders are gradually exposed. Slowly and steadily the shifting cultivation process causes the streams down the hill to dry up. It also brings down heavy silts into the river basins, plains and valley .The extensive deforestation effects rainfall.It affects the life of animals and forest resources, and it also leads tonomadic habits among the practioners.
In the past, land in the tribal areas had not been surveyed and settled . Therefore,the tribals freely practiced shifting cultivation in their respective habitats assuming that land, forest, water and other natural resources belonged to them .There were two traditional systems of land tenure prevalent among the tribes of Orissa , Among the tribes of northern Orissa land the other resources were communally owned and thus the annual distribution of plots on the hill slopes for shifting cultivation was being done in a corporate manner,But among the tribes of southern Orissa all such lands and other natural resources were under the control of the village (tribal) head man ,who on approach used to allot plots for use to individuals. And since the evolution of Indian Forest Policy in 1952 and completion of survey and settlement of land in tribal areas the traditional tribal land tenure system has dwindled.The tribals therefore ,now have limited land forest resources for the practice of Shifting cultivation and for carrying on hunting ,collecting and gathering activities.
The pernicious,yet unavoidable ,practice of shifting cultivation continues unchecked , and all attempts made to wean away the tribals from shifting cultivation have so far failed. The colonization scheme of the State Govt. has failed in Practice.
 In certain hilly areas terraces are constructed along the slopes. It is believed to be a step towards settled agriculture. Terrace cultivation is practiced by the Saora , Kandha and Gadaba. The terraces are built on the slopes of hill with water streams. In terrace cultivation the available hill slopes are fully used, and the available water of hill streams are tapped for cultivation throughout the year as the water flows from one terrace to another in downward motion .The terrace walls are riveted and packed with stones and boulders, which cannot be washed out easily. In terraces paddy is mainly grown and the per acre yield is quite high. The quantity of terrace land under the possession of a family is not much.
5. Several Large tribes, such as, Santhal, Munda , Ho, Bhumij,Oraon, Gond, Kandha, Mirdha, Savera, etc, are settled agriculturists though they supplement their economy with hunting ,gathering and collecting .Tribal agriculture in Orissa is characterized by unproductive and uneconomic holdings, land alienation indebtedness, lack if irrigation facilities in the undulating terrains, lack of easy r soft credit facilities in the undulating terrains, lack of easy or soft credit facilities as well as use of traditional skill and primitive implemens. In general, they raise ony one crop during the monsoon, and therefore have to supplement their economy by other types of subsidiary economic activities.
Tribal communities practicising settled agriculture also suffer from further problems, viz., (1) want of record of right for land under occupation (2) land alientation (3) problems of indebtedness (4) lack of power for irrigation (5) absence of adequate roads and transport (6) seasonal migration to other places for wage earning and (7) lack of education and adequate scope for modernization.
 6. sizable agglomeration of tribal population of orissa has moved to mining, industrial and urba areas for earning a secured living through wage- labor. During the past three decades the process of industrial urbanization in the tribal belt of Orissa has been accelerated through the operation of mines and establishment of industries. Mostly persons from advanced tribal communities , such as Santhal, Munda Ho, Oraon, Kisan ,Gond etc. have taken to this economic pursuit in order to relieve pressure from their limited land and other resources.
In some instances industrialization and minig operations have led to uprooting of tribal villages, and the displaced became industrial nomads. They lost their traditional occupation,agricultural land,houses and other immovable assets. They becameunemployed and faced unfair competition with others in the labor market. The aspiration gradually escalated, although they invariably failed to achieve what they aspired for .Thus the net result was frustration occasionally their disappointment has been reflected in unrest and agitation. They Jharkhand movement also capitalizes on these issues.
While it is neither possible nor desirable to halt the process of industrialization,the authorities must contemplate built –in safeguards for all those who are affected by it.
In a discussion on tribal economy it is essential to dilate briefly on the concept of “Primitivism”,
Because tribal communities in general are branded as primitive. The concept of ‘Primitive’has been subjected to increasing criticism by anthropologists. The term is considered as a cliché and a derogatory one it is contempyuous and obfuscating. The term represents an ortholinar view point and a less advanced technological stage. Tribal societies, labeled as primitive ,are almost in a state of equilibrium .The change though is ubiquitous, its pace is slow in tribal societies , because of geo-historical reasons , Branding the tribal communities as ‘primitive ‘ in an egregious error, because the more we understand the tribal communities , the better we understand the ourselves. The term ‘primitive’ denotes a particular configuration of certain phenomena, that is(i) small scale homogeneous kin –based society.
With simple division of labor (ii) social and political Organization go hand in hand (iii) relative isolation with a specific geographical location(iv) egalitarian society ,lack of significant competition and the normative order rests on cooperation(v) techno-economic level is low with the lack of formal education and capitalistic orientation(vi) personality is endowed with an over powering sense of realism and pragmatism.(vii) religious beliefs and performances directly contribute to a strong sense of personal security, and (viii) monolingualism contributing to socio –cultural isolationism. Therefore, what one notices here is that the largest significant reference group is the ‘tribe’ or a segment of it, the sub-tribe’ this is, a single, endogamous ethnic group occupying a more or less contiguous territory. in some cases, e.g., Santhal, Munda and Ho describe themselves as ‘Hor’ meaning ‘man,’ which others are ‘Diku’ or ‘aliens.’
The tribes are segmented into exogamous (partilineal in Orissa) totemic (excepting the Saoras) clans. Frequently with territorial cohesion and strong corporate identity. Clans are segmented into lineages with known genealogical ties which function as effective corporate social units.
The overall kinship system of the tibes may be labeled as ‘tempered classificatory.’ In terminology the emphasis lies on the unolineal priniciple,generation and age,Descent and inheritance are patrilineal and authority is patripotestal among all tribal communities of Orissa, On the basis of kinship organization Orissan tribes can be divided into two categories. The kinship system of the tribes of the Dravidian language family is’bifurcate mergine’ type’ whereas the tribes of the other two language families is bifurcate collateral type.
 As regards the acquisition of brides for marriage the most widely prevalent practice among the triribes of Orissa is through ‘capture’ although other practices such as, elopement,purchase service and negotiation are also there .With the passage of time negotiated type of marriage which is considered prestigious,is beingpreferred more and more. Payment of bride- price is an inseparable part of tribal marriage ,but has changed to the system of dowry among the educated sections. In the past tribal marriages used to be performed in the house of the groom,but In recent times well to do and educated tribal families have changed the marriage booth to the bride’s parental home.After marriage the bride goes to the houses of her –in-laws. Therefore, family among all the tribal communities of Orissa is patrilocal. Among some of the Dravidian tribal communities of Orissa the custom of ‘prescriptive’and ‘preferential ‘ marriage are here, that is marriage with mother’s brother’s daughter or fathers’s brother’s daughter.
Excepting the Kandha this custom is in operation mong other Dravidian tribes of Orissa.
Among the tribes there is very little specialization of social roles. With the exception of role differentiation in terms of Kinship and sex and some specialization in crafts, the only other role specializations are head-man, Priest, Shahman and the Haruspex.
There is very little rigid stratificationin society.The tendency towards stratification is gaining momentum among several settled agricultural tribes under the impact of modernization.The tribes of Orissa are at different levels of socio-economic development.
The religion of the Orisssa tribes is an admixture of animism,, animatism, nature worship, fetishism, shamanism, anthropomorphism and ancestor worship. Religious beliefs and practices aim at ensuring personal security and happiness as well as community well-being and group solidarity. Their religious performances include life-crises rites, cyclic community rites, ancestor and totemic rites and observance of taboos. Besides these, the tribals also resort to various types of occult practices. In order to tide over either a personal or a group crisis the tribals begin with occult practices, and if it dies not yield any result the next recourse is supplication of the supernatural force.
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